

@article {3788,
	title = {Foodborne viruses: an emerging problem.},
	journal = {International journal of food microbiology},
	volume = {90},
	number = {1},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {23{\textendash}41},
	abstract = {Several groups of viruses may infect persons after ingestion and then are shed via stool. Of these, the norovirus \{\{\}(NoV)\{\}\} and hepatitis A virus \{\{\}(HAV)\{\}\} are currently recognised as the most important human foodborne pathogens with regard to the number of outbreaks and people affected in the Western world. \{\{\}NoV\{\}\} and \{\{\}HAV\{\}\} are highly infectious and may lead to widespread outbreaks. The clinical manifestation of \{\{\}NoV\{\}\} infection, however, is relatively mild. Asymptomatic infections are common and may contribute to the spread of the infection. Introduction of \{\{\}NoV\{\}\} in a community or population (a seeding event) may be followed by additional spread because of the highly infectious nature of \{\{\}NoV,\{\}\} resulting in a great number of secondary infections (50\{\%\} of contacts). Hepatitis A is an increasing problem because of the decrease in immunity of populations in countries with high standards of hygiene. Molecular-based methods can detect viruses in shellfish but are not yet available for other foods. The applicability of the methods currently available for monitoring foods for viral contamination is unknown. No consistent correlation has been found between the presence of indicator microorganisms (i.e. bacteriophages, E. coli) and viruses. \{\{\}NoV\{\}\} and \{\{\}HAV\{\}\} are highly infectious and exhibit variable levels of resistance to heat and disinfection agents. However, they are both inactivated at 100 degrees C. No validated model virus or model system is available for studies of inactivation of \{\{\}NoV,\{\}\} although investigations could make use of structurally similar viruses (i.e. canine and feline caliciviruses). In the absence of a model virus or model system, food safety guidelines need to be based on studies that have been performed with the most resistant enteric \{\{\}RNA\{\}\} viruses (i.e. \{\{\}HAV,\{\}\} for which a model system does exist) and also with bacteriophages (for water). Most documented foodborne viral outbreaks can be traced to food that has been manually handled by an infected foodhandler, rather than to industrially processed foods. The viral contamination of food can occur anywhere in the process from farm to fork, but most foodborne viral infections can be traced back to infected persons who handle food that is not heated or otherwise treated afterwards. Therefore, emphasis should be on stringent personal hygiene during preparation. If viruses are present in food preprocessing, residual viral infectivity may be present after some industrial processes. Therefore, it is key that sufficient attention be given to good agriculture practice \{\{\}(GAP)\{\}\} and good manufacturing practice \{\{\}(GMP)\{\}\} to avoid introduction of viruses onto the raw material and into the food-manufacturing environment, and to \{\{\}HACCP\{\}\} to assure adequate management of (control over) viruses present during the manufacturing process. If viruses are present in foods after processing, they remain infectious in most circumstances and in most foods for several days or weeks, especially if kept cooled (at 4 degrees C). Therefore, emphasis should be on stringent personal hygiene during preparation. For the control of foodborne viral infections, it is necessary to: Heighten awareness about the presence and spread of these viruses by foodhandlers; Optimise and standardise methods for the detection of foodborne viruses; Develop laboratory-based surveillance to detect large, common-source outbreaks at an early stage; and Emphasise consideration of viruses in setting up food safety quality control and management systems \{\{\}(GHP,\{\}\} \{\{\}GMP,\{\}\} \{\{\}HACCP).\{\}\}},
	author = {Koopmans, Marion and Duizer, Erwin}
}
